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Emperor's Power versus Empress' Power: Qing Emperors' Control and Suppression of Empresses' Authority MAO Liping Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (4): 43-59.   Abstract （551）      PDF（pc） （12939KB）（441）       Knowledge map    Save For most of the Qing Dynasty, there were few instances of the empresses interfering in state affairs. This article investigates how emperors controlled and suppressed the authority of the empresses using the political system, ritual, and space to understand the dimensions of the "Cleanup of the Inner Palace”. Qing emperors isolated the inner court world by cutting off any connection between the empresses and people outside the court to restrict the empresses' authority from extending beyond the court. Under the control of emperors, the status of Qing empresses changed from “a motherly model of the nation" to "the master of the inner court." Ultimately, empresses could not even make decision son most matters within the inner court. Thus, Qing emperors contained the authority of the empresses efficiently and established their exclusive status inside and outside the court. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Study of the Western Character Code Created by Yuntang#br# WANG Miansen Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (5): 35-45.   Abstract （411）      PDF（pc） （11515KB）（379）       Knowledge map    Save Yuntang, the son of Emperor K angxi, created a code by mixing western characters and Manchu language. The Qing government included the use of this code to send messages as one of the 28 accusations against Yuntang. An inspection of the newly discovered file of Yuntang's case, has found that the code system transliterated Chinese using Manchu and then transliterated Manchu language to L atin characters. The design of this code system considered both the sound and shape of the characters. The code was quite distinctive but also had many defects. As the earliest known transliteration of Manchu created by Chinese people, the western character code created by Yuntang was an example of cultural communication between East and West in the early Qing Dynasty. As to the content of the coded letter, it only discussed family matters. Nevertheless, when the Qing government charged Yuntang it bypassed the content and focused on criticizing the intention of his behavior and created a subtle sense of between the virtual and the reality"' regarding the content of the letter and the meaning of the violation. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Manchu Division of the Grand Council and the Transition of Central Organization in Qing Empire ZHANG Lingxiao Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (4): 68-81.   Abstract （394）      PDF（pc） （11150KB）（352）       Knowledge map    Save The Grand Council, as the central organization of the Qing Empire, had played an important role in the development of imperial politics since the mid-Qing. The Manchu Division (Man-ban，满伴）was a common term in the documents of the Grand Council，but scholars have paid little attention to this group. We do not know when it began, nor can we be sure of its personnel and duties. In this essay, the author argues that the Manchu Division was composed of Grand Council clerks, especially the Duty Secretaries值班章京.The officials of the Grand Council usually called them“Manchu old gentlemen”满老先生or Man-ban满班.Manchu Division might refer to Chinese language ban and Manchu language gaksi that was a new term created after the mid-Qianlong period. The appearance and popularity of the Manchu Division marked the maturation of internal mechanisms in the Grand Council.The emperor kept a balance between the Manchu and Chinese clerks by various devices. From the mid-nineteenth century, alienation grew between Manchu and Chinese clerks. Consequently, the Central Organization became rigid, and the political ecosystem finally collapsed completely. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Transformation of Frontier Governance in Guangxu-Xuantong Period and the “Danpier Case” ZHANG Linxi Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (4): 143-156.   Abstract （355）      PDF（pc） （10827KB）（291）       Knowledge map    Save The Kangxi and Qianlong emperors strengthened the sponsorship of land cultivation in Mongolia and changed the administrative mode over Han Chinese and Mongols from ethnic segregation to jurisdictional separation. However, as the central court increasingly lost control to local interests,private Mongolian cultivators flourished, which finally motivated the late Qing Reform to draw the Mongolian banner lands into the state revenue system. In this reformative attempt, the court authorized Yigu, the General of Suiyuancheng, to publicize the privately cultivated lands and permitted him to cooperate with the Bureau of Reclamation and land dealers. Yigu's way of reforming the cultivation,on the one hand, impeded the landed interests of the Taijis, and on the other hand, redirected the land revenues to the Bureau of Reclamation. Therefore, Yigu's conflict with the Taiji led to his execution of Danpier, a representative Taiji in Yihju League. The court in turn used this event as an excuse to dismiss Yigu and his collaborators. As a result, the Han Chinese and Mongols became integrated. The article demonstrates that other parts of Inner Mongolia followed Yigu's reform and therefore intensified the presence of the state power in Inner Mongolia. In conclusion, this critical change helped to increase the centripetal force of the Republican China over the Jasagh Mongolia. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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A Discussion on the “Inner-Asianess”of the Qing Dynasty from the Viewpoint of Multilingual Composition QIANG Guangmei Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (4): 60-67.   Abstract （272）      PDF（pc） （6304KB）（149）       Knowledge map    Save American scholars of “New Qing History” regard multilingual composition as one of the characteristics of the “Inner-Asianess,” that distinguished the Qing Dynasty from a traditional “Central Plains Dynasty." There are biases and inaccuracies in this point of view, and it does not completely conform to historical logic and facts. First, to a considerable extent, the multi-lingual composition of the Qing Dynasty was the inheritance and development of the political and cultural heritage of the Ming Dynasty, rather than a unique phenomenon of Inner Asia. Secondly, the main motive for the rulers of the Qing Dynasty to advocate the multi-lingual writing was to maintain the governance of a multinational country, rather than to sustain their “Inner-Asianess.” Thirdly, the Qing rulers considered themselves as orthodox in the Central Plain and by using multi-lingual composition, they rebuilt the “an order of shared literacy", which took the Confucianism as the core. In this way, the Qing Dynasty made the transition from Manchurian regime to a great national unity and became a part of Chinese history. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Early Qing Dynasty Official Interpretations of Confucian Works and Official Confucian Classics HUANG Aiping Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (5): 1-11.   Abstract （256）      PDF（pc） （13094KB）（303）       Knowledge map    Save Since the reign of Shunzhi, experiencing the three reigns of Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors, the Qing Imperial Court successively compiled nineteen categories of scripture and interpretative books with various titles, such as "Jie Yi", Zhe Zhong, Hui Zuan and "Yi Shu through official revision, which covered all the Confucian classics and thus constructed a systematic system of official Confucian classics. Referring to these measures, the rulers showed the governing function of Confucian classics, declared the unity of Confucian orthodoxy, and imperial governance, strengthened ethics and morality and the order of superior and inferior, and showed a certain sense of academic : summary. It is beneficial to deepen the study of the politics , ideology, and academia of the Qing Dynasty by clarifying the concrete situation of the early Qing official interpretations of Confucian classics, analyzing the background and process of the establishment of the official Confucian classics system, and disclosing the political pursuit, ideological concepts and cultural implications contained in them. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Foundation of the Countersignature System of the Grand Council during the Late Qing Dynasty ZHANG Bo Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (4): 82-95.   Abstract （238）      PDF（pc） （10355KB）（221）       Knowledge map    Save The countersignature system originated in the West and was an important part of there responsibility cabinet system. The countersignature system was first discussed and planned during the late Qing Dynasty, although it was compared to the countersignature system of the Grand Council in the Qianlong years, it was still a Western-inspired reform. However, after successive discussions and trade-offs, the countersignature system and the responsible cabinet were separated before the final implementation. Taking advantage of Prince Chun's regency, the Grand Council's counter signature system was promulgated. As for the purpose and definition of the change, there was no expressed explanation. After Pandora's Box was opened, a series of political trends and disputes followed. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Studies in Qing History    2023, 0 (1): 92-99.   Abstract （238）      PDF（pc） （6231KB）（66）       Knowledge map    Save Related Articles | Metrics

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Studies in Qing History    2023, 0 (2): 47-56.   Abstract （237）      PDF（pc） （1463KB）（116）       Knowledge map    Save Related Articles | Metrics

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Studies in Qing History    2022, 0 (6): 1-15.   Abstract （233）      PDF（pc） （1546KB）（209）       Knowledge map    Save Related Articles | Metrics

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Studies in Qing History    2023, 0 (2): 121-130.   Abstract （229）      PDF（pc） （1643KB）（129）       Knowledge map    Save Related Articles | Metrics

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The Military Scribe and the Military Management in the Qing Dynasty WEN Haibo XIE Diancheng Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (5): 55-68.   Abstract （228）      PDF（pc） （16709KB）（263）       Knowledge map    Save      The military scribe (ZISHI) was the most basic level staff in charge of processing documents for the Green Standard Army during the Qing Dynasty. Originating in the Ming Dynasty, the system of military scribes continued operating under the Shunzhi reign and was took shape during the mid- Kangxi reign. Most of these scribes were selected from the battalions by their officers. They were paid without receiving military training, so there was an attempt to replace them with military clerks during the Yongzheng period. Nevertheless, military officers kept this system for various reasons, related to the military budget or their own interests. Therefore, military scribes were widespread, and this system was difficult to abolish. To solve this problem and ensure the effective transmission of military documents, the Qing court made corresponding regulations on the amount, status, and allocation of military scribes in the mid - and late Qianlong period. The gradual institutionalization of military scribes was a compromise and pragmatic measure when the military power had difficulty to reach the grass roots society. However, problems resulting from the limited literacy of military officers could not be ignored. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Integration of Domestic and Foreign Affairs: A Study of China's Political Situation in 1900 through the Replacement of Shanghai Daotai ZHENG Zemin Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (5): 113-125.   Abstract （227）      PDF（pc） （15029KB）（357）       Knowledge map    Save In September 1900, an important personnel change suddenly took place in Shanghai, which had been saved from war by southeast mutual protection": Yu Lianyuan was replaced by Cheng Yiluo, the alternate official of Jiangsu Province. It seemed like an ordinary official appointment, but there were complex power contests and diplomatic activities, including the intervention of the consuls of various countries, as well as the participation of Chinese officials such as Liu Kunyi, Sheng Xuanhuai, Li Hongzhang, Rong Lu, Lu Chuanlin, and others. The investigation of this event provides a new perspective from which to grasp the changes of China's political situation in 1900. At the same time, this event reveals the interwoven political modality of internal and foreign affairs in this period. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Studies in Qing History    2023, 0 (1): 41-57.   Abstract （226）      PDF（pc） （14780KB）（115）       Knowledge map    Save Related Articles | Metrics

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Textual Research on the Eight Banners' Garrison in Hanzhong in the Early Qing Dynasty QU Cheng Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (4): 118-133.   Abstract （214）      PDF（pc） （12495KB）（310）       Knowledge map    Save Hanzhong was a strategic crossing point between Sichuan and Shaanxi provinces during the suppression of the Three Feudatories. The Qing government had twice set up Eight Banner Garrisons during the Shunzhi and Kangxi reigns. For a variety of reasons, the end of the hostilities, difficulty of the transport and supply, the contradictions between the banner men and the local populace, and the prevention of Sinicization, the garrison in Hanzhong was finally withdrawn. During the Yongzheng and Qianlong reigns, the Qing government once again proposed establishing a garrison in Hanzhong to provide for the livelihood of banner men. However, because the Qing government was at war with the Dzunggars, the plan was scrapped. The establishment and removal of the Hanzhong Garrison indicated that the garrison system was still being adjusted stage before Qianlong reign. The removal of the Hanzhong Garrison also showed that the Qing dynasty had shifted the focus of Eight Banner garrisons from the interior to the frontier and relected the change of national political geography during the process of unification. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Standards for the Employment and the Distribution of Power among the Staff of the Board of Punishments in the Qing Dynasty LI Ming Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (4): 96-105.   Abstract （212）      PDF（pc） （8298KB）（109）       Knowledge map    Save The Board of Punishments preferred to employ the Administrative Associates (including the Directors, Vice Directors, Secretaries) who had long experience in the Board and officials who had passed the recruitment examinations and qualified for government office to meet the demands of important legal affairs. The Board of Personnel preferred unified management of official selection, while the Board of Punishments wanted to enhance its own power to promote staff. During the Jiaqing reign,the Board was crowded with an increasing number of staff who had obtained their positions via paid donation. With the standards for staff members in constant flux, the Board of Punishments gained more independence in official selection and set the requirements for proficiency in the legal affairs. Abundant legal knowledge and adequate judicial experience were the key factors in the power distribution within the Board of Punishments. These criteria ensured the quality of the personnel who handled cases and contributed to the operation of the judicial system. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Rethinking the Qing Dynasty's Eighteen-century Political Reforms GUO Chengkang Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (4): 1-5.   Abstract （211）      PDF（pc） （3851KB）（234）       Knowledge map    Save Related Articles | Metrics

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Acting Imperial Power by the Minister: The Dispute over the Etiquette of Zaifeng's Regency and the New Situation of Imperial Power in the Xuantong Reign Li Xinrong Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (5): 126-139.   Abstract （206）      PDF（pc） （16104KB）（242）       Knowledge map    Save In November 1908, Empress Dowager Cixi suddenly died. On her deathbed, she ordered Zaifeng to be the Prince Regent, and told him to seek advice on "major events" from the Empress Dowager Longyu. At that time, public opinion in China and in foreign countries was quite favorable toward Zaifeng. The Qing government formulated the etiquette of Regency by means of collegial discussion. Zaifeng and Longyu reached a compromise to handle state affairs and palace events separately. Driven by the force of some censors, the signature system of the seal, which aimed at controlling the State Administration and had the color of constitutionalism, was implemented. The Forbidden City defense force and even the national military forces were also controlled by the Prince Regent. On the other hand, Zaifeng was willing to serve as a minister, and modestly handled the etiquette issues such as residence, royal summons, and the Regent worship. These arrangements weakened the majesty of the imperial powers, and met the expectation of public opinion for constitutionalism, but also caused the concern that the etiquette was not standard. Acting imperial power with the minister as the core of the new regent system, was easily influenced by the last edict of Cixi and the royal power struggle. Zaifeng failed to promote the constitutional system in time to eliminate the hidden dangers, which initiated the pro aristocratic movement and the chaotic politics of Xuantong Dynasty. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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Changes and Influences of the Banner Population in the Qing Dynasty LIU Xiaomeng Studies in Qing History    2021, 0 (4): 17-22.   Abstract （198）      PDF（pc） （4194KB）（306）       Knowledge map    Save Related Articles | Metrics

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Studies in Qing History    2022, 0 (3): 1-12.   Abstract （186）      PDF（pc） （9651KB）（139）       Knowledge map    Save Related Articles | Metrics