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The Guangzhou Cohong System of the Qing Dynasty XIAO Guo-Liang journal6    2007, 0 (1): 32-48.   Abstract （6400）      PDF（pc） （1649KB）（1892）       Knowledge map    Save The Cohong system of Early Qing dynasty was the monopolistic in its separation of ownership and management, which made the Hong merchants a type of official businessman and the autocratic state’s instrument for controlling foreign trade. The Hong Merchants monopolized and controlled foreign trade, and simultaneously took on many official duties: collecting tariff, managing foreign traders, and dealing with foreign affairs on behalf of Qing dynasty. In the practical operation of the Cohong system, interests of the different groups were involver, including the state, the Guangdong customs, the Hong merchants, foreign traders, and private Chinese businessmen. The transformation of relations between these interests led to the Cohong system’s decay. This demonstrated the relationship between autocratic government and economy institutional change in traditional China. Related Articles | Metrics

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ZHONG Li-Man, GENG Zuo-Che, LI Jun, XING Hong-Wei, WANG Ke, ZHANG Yong-Bao, ZOU Shu-Yun, XIA Pu, LI Yi-Guo, ZHANG Xin-Wei, ZHANG Da-Ming, SONG Chao-Jin, PAN Guan-Min journal6    2008, 0 (4): 1-12.   Abstract （3959）      PDF（pc） （1415KB）（4030）       Knowledge map    Save Related Articles | Metrics

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A Reconstruction of the Events Surrounding Li Hongzhang's Slaughter of Taiping Captives at Suzhou FEI Zhijie journal6    2012, 0 (4): 37-.   Abstract （3576）      PDF（pc） （176KB）（829）       Knowledge map    Save Near the end of the Taiping Rebellion, in December, 1863, Li HongZhang killed Taiping captives in Suzhou, marking the destruction of the Taiping's Sunan base and facilitating the Qing government's destruction of the movement. But this event also intensified the conflicts between the foreign commander, Charles Gordon and Li, and even triggered a severe condemnation by the foreign powers. Clarifying the facts surrounding this event will make an invaluable contribution to the historical evaluation of Li Hongzhang and research into the Taiping Rebellion. There has been a great deal of research on this topic, but the author has studied the relevant historical data and has new thoughts and his reconstruction of this incident identifies the real reason for the killing． Related Articles | Metrics

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The Use and Meaning of the Title“Nucai”in the Context of the Qing Dynasty Monarch and His Ministers QI Meiqin journal6    2011, 0 (4): 1-13.   Abstract （3521）      PDF（pc） （177KB）（1257）       Knowledge map    Save During Qing Dynasty，the civilian officials of the Eight Banners and all military staff officers above Zongbing referred to themselves as “Nucai”before the emperor． This term became an important feature of the relationship between the monarch and his ministers during the Qing Dynasty． This article starts from a historical standpoint and gives a detailed examination of the background of the title “Nucai”，its performance and significance under this context，and reveals the role and impact of the complex political，social and ideological aspects behind the change of the title． Related Articles | Metrics

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Coin-casting and GDP Estimation of the Qianlong Period: A New Approach DAI Jianbing, XU Ke journal6    2013, 0 (1): 44-52.   Abstract （3479）      PDF（pc） （329KB）（104）       Knowledge map    Save The issue of currency provided the most primitive power to the economic development of Qing under the monetary economy． The money made from central and local casting bureaus became an important source of the GDP.The period of Qianlong was the peak for casting copper coins． The cost and quantity of central and local casting bureaus，called“copper administration”by the Qing government，framed the Qing dynasty's most important part of the national economy． Attention should be paid to the fact that the governmental economic operation had a contribution to the GDP．In addition，careful accounting of the economic data in the traditional Chinese economic model could also be used as a new approach to the GDP estimation of the Qing dynasty． Related Articles | Metrics

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Performance Differences of Chinese and British Cannons during the First Opium War LIU Hong-Liang journal6    2006, 0 (3): 31-42.   Abstract （3168）      PDF（pc） （635KB）（2517）       Knowledge map    Save During the First Opium War, there were no substantive differences between the firing rate, range, precision, of Chinese and British muzzle-loader and smooth-bore cannons.However, the British army’s theory of artillery, material used to make the cannons, quality of their ammunition, casting technology, carronade’s performance, mobility and firing rate of its canons, were superior to Chinese army.Meanwhile, the quantity, quality, tactics, and organization of the Qing army, as well as its intelligence, training, and quality of the commanding officers were inferior to British army.These factors influenced the effective kill rate of Chinese and British cannons, magnified the limited gap between two countries’artillery, and created enormous differences in fighting capacity between the two armies. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Qing Jinshenlu Database : A New Source for the Study of Qing Officialdom REN Yuxue etal journal6    2016, 0 (4): 61-77.   Abstract （3131）      PDF（pc） （3631KB）（4074）       Knowledge map    Save This essay introduces a major new database, based on the Jinshenlu, for the study of Chinese officialdom and Chinese society during the last imperial dynasty, the Qing, who ruled from 1644 to 1911. For almost two centuries, the Qing government and private publishers published a Jinshenlu every three months with the names and particulars of all civil, and sometimes military，officials. We are transcribing 400 of these quarterly editions dating from 1661 to 1917 into a database，beginning with 206 containing approximately 2 800 000 records of 400 000 officials republished by the Tsinghua University Library as the《清代缙绅录集成》. Based on our initial transcription of 652 984 records of 145 770 officials from 47 editions, we demonstrate the potential of these data for the study of official careers. We contrast bannermen, who had their own appointment system，with civil officials who passed the civil service examinations ,and other officials who purchased their appointments. Moreover, we demonstrate that these Jinshenlu records can be linked to records in other systematic sources on the Qing imperial lineage, on examination degree holders , and on office purchasers. The resulting combined data provide an important opportunity to understand Qing political and social elites. Reference | Related Articles | Metrics

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The Change of Yin-ti's Name and Emperor Yongzheng's Succession to the Throne Silas Wu journal6    2013, 0 (3): 1-16.   Abstract （3113）      PDF（pc） （1210KB）（1488）       Knowledge map    Save The legitimacy of Emperor Yongzheng's succession to the imperial throne has been a controversial issue among Qing historians since the early 20thcentury． Those scholars who hold the view that his 14 th brother was originally the designated heir by Emperor Kangxi，but Yongzheng usurped the throne through devious means． One version of the “usurpation theory ” is that Yongzheng had first stolen his 14th brother's name and made it to be his own，while at the same time fabricated a new name———Yun-ti———for his 14th brother in order to cover up the illegitimate nature of his throne． However，their findings are altogether erroneous because they failed to find out the 14 thbrother's name from the Zongshi Yudie ( Genealogy of the Imperial House) ． On the other hand，scholars who hold the view that Yongzheng's throne was indeed legitimate and the change of names among his brothers was simply atraditional practice under the imperial institution． They identified the original name of the 14 th brother from the Zongshi Yudie． This article is intended to be a critical review of the historical sources used by both sides of the scholars． Related Articles | Metrics

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Some Explanations of the 'Haha Juse'in the Qing Dynasty LI Wenyi journal6    2016, 0 (1): 48-62.   Abstract （3054）      PDF（pc） （1564KB）（1230）       Knowledge map    Save “哈哈珠子”is the Chinese transliteration of the Manchu term ` haha juse.’The term was originally a plural noun that referred to young boys who were‘reading partners’in the Court Education. By 1673 at the latest，the word‘haha juse’had become a specific name for the prince's‘reading partner’who was also one of the prince’s guards.‘Haha juse’were most powerful during the Kangxi reign，and became an invisible force in political life. Afterwards，emperors Yongzheng and Qianlong gradually strengthened imperial power，and the position of the‘haha juse’was weakened. By the end of the Qing Dynasty，‘haha juse’had become a group of attendants and no longer had authority. The authors who composed the Manchu archives had intentiuonally distinguished between the two meanings of the term. By the late Qing the changing roles of‘haha juse’were misunderstood. Contemporary translators of Manchu archives have confused the meanings and this confusion has influenced modern scholars. Related Articles | Metrics

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The Basic Contents and Framework of Ferdinand Verbiest’s Thorough Inquiry into Physics(Qiongli xue) SHANG Zhi-Cong journal6    2003, 0 (3): 73-84.   Abstract （2899）      PDF（pc） （793KB）（2155）       Knowledge map    Save Ferdinand Verbiest’ s Thorough Inquiry into Physics was a comprehensive record of the intellectual exchange between China and the West during the late Ming and the early Qing. Unfortunately, only fragments of this work have survived. Through an analysis of the conceptual organization, editorial style, and extant remnants, this paper suggests that the book included six major topics: logic, methodology and metaphysics, mathematics, astronomy, measurements, biology and medicine, which were divided into sixty volumes (juan). Among the notable features of this work were its abandonment of the natural theology of Aristotelian philosophy and its integration with Chinese natural sciences ( gezhi), and its total reliance on deductive reasoning. The book reflects the general state of the field of studies, known in the late Ming and the early Qing as“investigating natural phenomena and their principles”. Related Articles | Metrics

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Authenticity of the Grain Price Data of the Qing Yangtze Basin WANG Yuru, LUO Chang journal6    2013, 0 (1): 53-69.   Abstract （2889）      PDF（pc） （2434KB）（93）       Knowledge map    Save Using the data in The Grain Price Table and The Grain Price Database edited by Wang Yeh-chien，this paper conducted a quantified analysis on the authenticity of grain price data from 1736 to 1911． This research indicates that Qianlong's data is more reliable than the data of the Jiaqing and Daoguang period，but the data of the following Xianfeng，Tongzhi，Guangxu，and Xuantong periods are the least reliable． The reliability of price data is of vital importance in analyzing the economic development and should be evaluated in accordance with particular historical environment． Related Articles | Metrics

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The Titles of the Circuit Intendants in the Qing Dynasty ZHOU Yongjin journal6    2012, 0 (2): 36-42.   Abstract （2881）      PDF（pc） （288KB）（1063）       Knowledge map    Save Circuit intendants ( Dao) originated from vice financial commissioners and provincial judges in the Ming dynasty. The circuit was not so independent in its early stage. The circuit intendants worked as inspectors in certain areas with concurrent titles like financial commissioners and the provincial judges. The Qing dynasty inherited the Dao institution from the Ming dynasty, and each Dao had its own titles and ranks. With the development of the Dao institution, its status and function were gradually fixed up. As a result, the Qing court set the rank of circuit intedants as 4 and removed their concurrent titles in 1753. Henceforth, Circuit intendants became an independent position from vice financial commissioners and provincial judges． Related Articles | Metrics

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Emperor Qianlong’s Birth Mother and The Emperor’s Han Chinese Blood lineage DU Jiaji journal6    2016, 0 (2): 45-56.   Abstract （2870）      PDF（pc） （1576KB）（1284）       Knowledge map    Save This article argued that the birth mother of Emperor Qianlong was not the Han “Qian”，but the daughter of Peng，a Han who lived in Baodi prefecture，and her father was Manchurian Niuhuru Lingzhu. Lingzhu and his ancestors had some of blood lineage of Han，so the daughter also had plenty of blood lineages of Han. Therefore the son she had with Prince Yinzhen，as known as Emperor Qianlong，also had blood lineage of Han，and his blood lineage of Han was more than that of Manchu，and combined with some blood lineage of Mongolian，which made him a mix-blood of Han，Manchu and Mongolian. This article argued that there are a lot of problems with the imperial edict which conferred the birth mother of Qianlong as “Qian”. In this article，the author proved that the birth mother of Qianlong could not be “Qian”，but the Niuhuru. The reason for the “Qian” appeared in the imperial edict is as followed. Prince Yuntao who wrote down emperor’s verbal instructions used stenography and abbreviation to write down Niuhuru as Niu. However，due to his careless handwriting，the officials who wrote imperial edict mistaken it as “Qian”. They didn’t notice the mistake until they wrote it down on the golden book and gave it to the awardee. Yuntao who made this mistake was then punished for mistaking the name of imperial concubine. The birth mother of Emperor Qianlong was the daughter of a Han，which is also an important fact that proved intermarriage between Manchu and Han was forbidden but actually existed in Qing dynasty. Related Articles | Metrics

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Research on the Book of Manzhou Shilu YANG Yongjun journal6    2012, 0 (2): 99-111.   Abstract （2780）      PDF（pc） （478KB）（822）       Knowledge map    Save The Manzhou Shilu ( Chronological Records of Manchu) is an official book that records the origin of the Manchu ancestors and Nurhaci's deeds.This article discusses the origin of the precursor of the Manzhou Shilu———the Taizu Shilu Zhantu and its relationship with the Taizu Shilu.It clarifies that the Taizu Shilu Zhantu is not Manzhou Shilu and demonstrates that the first six of the eighty-three pictures were drawn during the Qianlong reign. Furthermore, the eight volumes of the Shilu mentioned in a poem composed by Emperor Qianlong actually referred to the Taizu Shilu Zhantu, not to Manzhou Shilu as the previous scholars argued．Given the above evidence，this article argues that the Manzhou Shilu is a forged book and that Emperor Qianlong himself took a role in the forgery process. This article also discusses the motivation of the forgery and the historical value of the Manchou Shilu． Related Articles | Metrics

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The Levirate Marriage of  Korcin Amba Mama,Empress Xiaoduan's Real Mother and its Meaning KUSUNOKI Yoshimichi journal6    2016, 0 (1): 1-7.   Abstract （2779）      PDF（pc） （1492KB）（1174）       Knowledge map    Save        Sonom，who was one of the chiefs in the Central Banner of the Left Wing of the Korcin Mongols，had a levirate marriage with one of the wives of his grandfather Manggus，namely，Korcin Amba Mama.Manggus and Amba Mama already had one daughter，who was，the Queen of Hong Taiji，who was the Khan of Manchu Khanate and the lord of Two Yellow Banners. Sonom and Amba Mama had at least one son and two daughters. When Amba Mama and her family visited Shenyang in 1633，Dodo，who was a younger brother by a different mother of Hong Taiji，petitioned to marry one of the daughters of Amba Mama. Hong Taiji consulted with lords of the other Banners about this marriage and consented to it. Dodo subsequently married that daughter in 1634. Dorgon，who was an older full brother of Dodo，married another daughter of Amba Mama. Dorgon and Dodo thus became sons-in-law of Amba Mama just like Hong Taiji. By those two marriages these three lords of Banners mutually confirmed that they formed one faction，besides other lords of Banners had acknowledged that faction beforehand. Related Articles | Metrics

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" Secret Code of the Fragrant Flower Monk"," The Wan-Wu Daozong","The Story of Xilu" and the Origins of The Heaven and Earth Society QIN Bao-Qi journal6    2007, 0 (3): 64-72.   Abstract （2771）      PDF（pc） （462KB）（3113）       Knowledge map    Save The discovery in the 1990s o f the ru ins o f the Chang lin M onastery, the relics of Wan- Wu Daozong, in Fujian, and what Luo Zhao has called them anuscripts of the “Secret Code of the Fragrant Flower Monk”caused quite a stir in academia. “The Secret Code,” which is copied some materials related with Heaven and Earth Society, and Luo Zhao confirmed it mainly written by Wan-W u Daozong, so it is regarded as valuable historical source for studying the origin of Heaven and Earth Society. Wan- Wu Daozong as the founder of the Heaven and Earth Society. Some scholars believe this find was a “major breakthrough” in the research on origins of the Heaven and Earth Society.  In 2006 this author visited the abbot of Kulai Temple on Dongshan Island in Fujian and examined the authentic source o f the “secret code”. In comparison, the author found that the source was not related to the content of Heaven and Earth Society. The Heaven and Earth Society figures and poems contained in these recent discoveries were added afterwards?? The word “Tongmenghui” was in the “Secret Code” , so it is impossible the work was handed down from Wan- Wu Daozong during Kangxi period. Therefore it cannot be taken as a source for studying the origins of Heaven and Earth Society. Conclusions based on it do not stand up.  But the discovery of the ruins of Chang lin Monastery contributes to understanding the story o f Xilu in “Record of the Society” of Heaven and Earth Society. Related Articles | Metrics

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The“Twelve Heads”and Manchu Language Studies in the Qing Period Marten SODERBLOM SAARELA journal6    2014, 0 (3): 1-11.   Abstract （2767）      PDF（pc） （1001KB）（961）       Knowledge map    Save In Manchu education of the Qing period，the Manchu “twelve heads，”a syllabary and language primer，formed the basis of the curriculum． This paper examines the use and evolution of the “twelve heads”from the point of view of textual criticism and the history of education，starting from the idea that the structure of the “twelve heads”was an original product of the Manchus，different from Mongolian character lists． After the conquest of China，the“twelve heads，”while rooted in the Manchu pedagogical tradition，became part of a bilingual pedagogical paradigm shared with Chinese primers． The original versions of the“twelve heads”were relatively simple character charts to be used as mnemonics． From the mid-Qing onwards，the “twelve heads”developed into a comprehensive textbook complete with analyses of the script that was suited for self-study． At the same time，scholars tried to make sense of the “twelve heads”using concepts borrowed from the Chinese tradition． In the process，Manchu writing became understood as consisting of syllabic characters in turn constituted of fixed brush strokes and thus on a par with Chinese characters． The Manchu “twelve heads”were eventually integrated into an educational tradition centered on the Chinese writing system． Related Articles | Metrics

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SHEN Yuan journal6    1997, 0 (1): 90-96.   Abstract （2655）      PDF（pc） （2825KB）（1084）       Knowledge map    Save Related Articles | Metrics

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Vietnam Envoys and Sino-Vietnam Suzerain-vassal Relation in the Qing Dynasty CHEN Guobao journal6    2012, 0 (2): 63-75.   Abstract （2602）      PDF（pc） （464KB）（1113）       Knowledge map    Save The suzerain-vassal relation between China and Vietnam lasted from 1667 to 1885. During the 200 years, as a tributary state of China, Vietnam formally respected China as a superior sovereign．But in reality, it adopted a diplomatic policy of“inside as a monarch and outside as a vassal.” This policy was designed to gain more national interest and to win a more“equal”status with China. Hence, every time when Vietnam paid tribute to China, the Vietnam court always fully prepared for the mission, especially the envoys. Those envoys fully understood Confucian Teachings. As diplomatic specialists，they cautiously behaved in order to maintain good relations with the Heavenly Dynasty. However, they also racked their brains to place Vietnam under an equal position with China. They played an important role in keeping a stable relation between the two countries． Related Articles | Metrics

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“Imaginary Chance ”: Review of the Divergence Opinion of the“California School”based on a Comparative Study on the Jiangnan and England Coal Industries in the Early Modern PEI Guangqiang journal6    2014, 0 (3): 60-77.   Abstract （2556）      PDF（pc） （2593KB）（688）       Knowledge map    Save The “California School”has insisted that the great distance between the northwest and Jiangnan was the key reason of the delayed modernization of Jiangnan，and that the location of coal in England was one of the important factors leading to the divergence between China and the West． This not only ignores the development of coal in Jiangnan and its environs，but also attempts to explain this huge proposition purely from the perspective of geographical environment． Through a comparative study on the coal industries in early modern China and England，we can see that England and Jiangnan both had abundant coal resources，but that there was also some important differences in fuel use structure，mining policy and technology，which resulted in a completely different developmental path in the coal industry in the two regions． The article provides a new perspective from which to criticize“accidental theory “of“California School”． Related Articles | Metrics